[Editor's Note: The close of 1991 witnessed the dismantling of Soviet Union. On December 25, 1991, Mikhail Gorbachev resigned as the last leader of that global superpower. In its place emerged a Commonwealth of Independent States, a loose confederation of 12 of the original 15 republics, led by Russian President Boris Yeltsin. The former constituent union republics of Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgystan, Moldova, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan formed the Commonwealth in mid December 1991. Georgia joined by year's end. The Baltic states, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, were recognized as independent states in September, 1991.]
Special Report:The End of the Soviet Union
[Editor's Note: The following is an excerpt from Foreign Policy Bulletin, Vol. 2, No. 3 & 4; Jan.-April, 1992, and includes the full-text of White House statements concerning events in the Soviet Union, economic agreements, the official agreement to establish the Commonwealth, and Gorbachev's resignation speech.]
WHITE HOUSE STATEMENT ON UKRAINIAN VOTE FOR INDEPENDENCE
December 2, 1991
Yesterday, in a free and fair vote, the people of Ukraine voted for independence. The United States welcomes this expression of democracy which is a tribute to the spirit of the Ukrainian people. The President would also like to congratulate Leonid Kravchuk on his apparent victory in Ukraine's first free presidential election. Yesterday's referendum and election were also a tribute to the defeat of the coup, in which Boris Yeltsin played such a pivotal role, and a positive development for the new Europe.
For its part, the United States looks forward to the kind of normal relationship with Ukraine that one would expect it to have with a democratizing country. Ukraine's aspiration to joint the Euro-Atlantic community is striking testimony to the will for liberty in a nation which has persisted and survived despite the terrible calamities of the 20th century. In developing this relationship, we also intend to continue our cooperation with President Gorbachev and his government and to strengthen our expanding ties with President Yeltsin and the Russian Government, as well as the other Republics.
We are aware that independence raises some complex issues to be resolved among Russia, Ukraine, and the center. Establishment of a new cooperative relationship between Russia and Ukraine, based on openness and mutual respect, will be a test of whether they are capable of making the transition to democratic societies which respect the rights of individuals. We hope and believe that the leaders in Moscow and Kiev will establish such a relationship.
The President has instructed the Secretary of State to dispatch a special emissary, Assistant Secretary for European and Canadian Affairs Thomas Niles, to discuss with the newly elected authorities in Kiev our future relationships with Ukraine.
In particular, Secretary Baker has asked the special emissary to consult closely with the Ukrainian leadership on three issues of fundamental importance:
First, the special emissary will discuss ways in which the United States and the international community can support Ukrainian adherence to democratic values and practices, especially respect for human rights including equal treatment of minorities. The special emissary will also discuss ways in which Ukraine can record its commitment to such fundamental principles as:
--Respect for international obligations;
--Respect for borders with changes to be made only peacefully and through negotiations; and
--Respect for and adherence to all of the other norms of the Helsinki Final Act, the Charter of Paris, and other CSCE documents.
Second, the special emissary will discuss with Ukrainian leaders the steps we would like to see Ukraine take to implement their desire to achieve a non-nuclear status and to ensure responsible security policies. These include the steps Ukraine is taking with other Republics and Union authorities to ensure safe, responsible, and reliable control of nuclear weapons; to prevent proliferation of dangerous military related technology; and to support implementation of relevant international agreements, including START, the Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty, the Nonproliferation Treaty, and the Biological Weapons Convention.
Third, the special emissary will also discuss with the Ukrainian leadership its commitment to economic policies aimed at facilitating free markets and fair trade both with other republics and with the international community more generally.
Finally, the special emissary will discuss Ukraine's obligation and role with regard to the debts of the Soviet Union.
After consulting with the Ukrainian leadership, the special emissary will return to Washington to report to Secretary Baker. The President has asked that later this month Secretary Baker travel to Kiev and Moscow to further consultations on these issues with the leadership of Russia, Ukraine, and the center. We are also discussing these issues in NATO and with other allies. The transformation of the Soviet Union, as we have known it, is of vital significance not only to us but to our European and other allies, and we, therefore, will continue to coordinate our approach with them.
In closing we commend Ukrainians for pursing the democratic path, both in the referendum on independence and in its popular vote for president. As both the Ukrainian and American people well understand, genuine and effective independence requires a never-ending commitment to democratic values and practices. As the people of Ukraine, Russia, and the other Republics continue peacefully and democratically to pursue the hard work of freedom, the President supports them in their work and wishes them peace and prosperity.
DECLARATION OF THE LEADERS OF RUSSIA, UKRAINE AND BELARUS
December 8, 1991
We, the heads of state of Belarus, Russia and Ukraine:
NOTING that talks on the preparation of a new union treaty have reached a dead end and the process of the secession of republics from the U.S.S.R. and forming the independent states has come to reality;
STATING that the shortsighted policy of the center has lead to a deep political and economic crisis, to disintegration of the economy and catastrophic decline of the living conditions of practically all the sectors of the population;
TAKING into account growing social tension in many regions of the former U.S.S.R., which have led to ethnic conflicts and resulted in numerous victims;
ACKNOWLEDGING the responsibility before our people and the world community and the growing necessity of practical implementation of political and economic reforms;
HEREBY declare the formation of a Commonwealth of Independent States, about which the parties signed an agreement on December 8, 1991.
The Commonwealth of Independent States, consisting of the Republic of Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine, is open to all member states of the former U.S.S.R., as well as to other states who share the aims and principles of this agreement.
The member states of the Commonwealth intend to conduct a policy aimed at reinforcing international peace and security. They guarantee fulfillment of international obligations from treaties and agreements of the former U.S.S.R. and insure unified control over nuclear weapons and their nonproliferation.
ECONOMIC PACT OF RUSSUA, UKRAINE AND BELARUS
December 8, 1991
Preservation and development of the existing close economic ties between our states is vitally necessary for stabilizing the situation in the national economy and creating the foundations for economic revival.
The parties have agreed to the following:
--To carry out coordinated radical economic reforms aimed at creating feasible market mechanisms, transformation of property and ensuring the freedom of entrepreneurship;
--To abstain from any actions economically harmful to each other;
--To develop economic relations and mutual accounts on the basis of the existing currency unit--the ruble. To introduce national currencies on the basis of special agreements which will guarantee the preservation of the economic interests of the parties;
--To sign an interbank agreement aimed at curbing monetary emission, providing for the effective control over money supply and forming a system of mutual accounts;
--To conduct a coordinated policy of reducing the republics' budget deficits;
--To conduct a coordinated policy of price liberalization and social protection;
--To undertake joint efforts aimed at providing for a single economic space;
--To coordinate external economic activities, customs policies and to provide for free transit;
--To regulate by special agreement the question of debt of the former U.S.S.R. enterprises;
--To coordinate in a period of ten days the amounts and procedure for financing of defense spending for 1992 and the expenditures for cleaning up the results of the Chernobyl nuclear disaster;
--To ask the Supreme Soviets of the Republics to take into account the necessity to coordinate the levels of sales taxes while forming tax policy;
--To help create joint-stock companies;
--To work out in December the mechanism for implementation of the inter-republican economic agreements.
OFFICIAL AGREEMENT BY RUSSIA, UKRAINE AND BELARUS TO ESTABLISH THE COMMONWEALTH
December 8, 1991
We, the Republic of Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine, as founding members of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, having signed the Union Treaty of 1922 and hereafter referred to as the agreeing parties, state that the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, as a subject of international law and geopolitical reality, is ceasing its existence.
Based on historical commonalities of our peoples and on ties that were set up between them, considering bilateral agreements signed between the agreeing parties,
Striving to found democratic legal states and intending to develop our relations on the basis of mutual recognition and the respect of state sovereignty, the integral right to self- determination, the principles of equality and noninterference in internal affairs, the refusal to use force or pressure by economic or other means, the settlement of controversial problems through agreement, other common principles and norms of international law,
Taking into account that the further development and strengthening of relations of friendship, good-neighborliness and mutually beneficial cooperation between our states is consistent with the basic national interests of their people and serves in the interests of peace and security,
Confirming our commitment to the goals and principles of the United Nations Charter, the Helsinki Final Act and other documents from the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe,
Obliging to observe common international norms on human and national rights,
We agree on the following:
Article 1
The agreeing parties are founding a Commonwealth of Independent States.
Article 2
The agreeing parties guarantee their citizens, regardless of nationality or other differences, equal rights and freedoms. Each of the agreeing parties guarantees citizens of other parties and also people without citizenship who reside on its territory, regardless of nationality or other differences, civil, political, social, economic and cultural rights and freedoms in accordance with common international norms on human rights.
Article 3
The agreeing parties that wish to found unique ethnocultural regions to contribute to the manifestation, preservation and development of ethnic, cultural, linguistic and religious distinctions of national minorities residing on their territories, will take them under their own protection.
Article 4
The agreeing parties will develop equal and mutually beneficial cooperation of their peoples and states in the spheres of politics, economics, culture, education, health care, environmental protection, science, trade, and humanitarian and other spheres, and will contribute to the wide exchange of information and will fully and strictly observe mutual obligations.
The parties consider it necessary to conclude agreements on cooperation in the above-mentioned spheres.
Article 5
The agreeing parties recognize and respect each other's territorial integrity, and the integrity of each other's borders in the framework of the commonwealth. They guarantee openness of borders, and the freedom for citizens to travel and exchange information within the framework of the commonwealth.
Article 6
Members of the commonwealth will cooperate to insure international peace and security and to carry out effective measures on limiting weapons and military expenditures. They are striving to liquidate all nuclear armaments, to have total and complete disarmament under strict international control.
The parties will respect each other's striving to achieve the status of a nuclear-free zone and neutral state.
Members of the commonwealth will preserve and support common military and strategic space under a common command, including common control over nuclear armaments, which will be regulated by special agreement.
They also mutually guarantee necessary conditions for the deployment, functioning, material and social maintenance of strategic armed forces. The parties are obliged to pursue consensual policy on questions of social protections and pensions for military personnel and their families.
Article 7
The parties recognize that the spheres of their mutual activities conducted on a mutual basis through common coordinating institutions of the commonwealth embrace:
--Coordination of foreign policy.
--Cooperation in forming and developing a common economic space, common European and Eurasian markets, in the sphere of customs policy.
--Cooperation to develop transport and communications systems.
--Cooperation on the sphere of environmental protection, participation in creation of the all-encompassing international system of ecological security.
--Questions of migration policy.
--The fight against organized crime.
Article 8
The parties are aware of the universal character of the Chernobyl disaster and are obliged to unite and coordinate their efforts to minimize and overcome its consequences.
They agreed to sign a special agreement on this matter, taking the consequences of the catastrophe into consideration.
Article 9
Disputes relating to the interpretation and usage of the norms of the current agreement are subjects to be solved through negotiations between corresponding organs, and at the state and governmental level if necessary.
Article 10
Each party reserves the right to suspend the current agreement or its individual articles by notifying the agreement's participants a year in advance.
The current agreement can be supplemented or changed according to mutual consent of the agreeing parties.
Article 11
From the moment the current agreement is signed, the laws of third states, including the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, are not valid on the territories of states which signed the current agreement.
Article 12
The parties guarantee the fulfillment of international obligations, treaties and agreements of the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, coming from these obligations.
Article 13
The current agreement does not concern obligations of the agreeing parties in relation to third states.
The current agreement is open to all state members of the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, and also to other states that share the goals and principles of the current agreement.
Article 14
The official location to station the coordinating organs of the Commonwealth is the city of Minsk.
The activities of the organs of the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics on the territories of state members of the Commonwealth are stopped.
Finalized in three copies in the Belarusian, Russian and Ukrainian languages in the city of Minsk, December 8, 1991. All three copies bear equal weight.
PRESIDENT GORBACHEV'S STATEMENT ON NEW COMMONWEATLH
December 9, 1991
On December 8, 1991 the leaders of Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine signed in Minsk an agreement to found a Commonwealth of Independent States.
As the country's President, the main yardstick with which to evaluate this document is the measure to which it satisfies the interests of security of its citizens, meets the tasks of overcoming the present crisis and the preservation of statehood and furtherance of democratic reforms.
This agreement has its positive moments.
The Ukrainian leadership, which previously showed no activity in the negotiating process, has joined it.
The document stresses the need to create a single economic space, operating on coordinated principles with a single currency and finance and banking system. It expresses readiness for cooperation in the fields of science, education, culture and other spheres. It suggests a definite formula of interaction in the military-strategic field.
But this is a document of special significance. It touches very deeply on the interests of the peoples of our country, of the entire world community, and hence calls for a comprehensive political and legal evaluation.
In any case, it is clear to me that the agreement directly proclaims the end of the U.S.S.R. Undoubtedly, each Republic has the right to withdraw from the Soviet Union, but the fate of our multinational country cannot be decided by the will of three republican leaders. This question can only be resolved through constitutional means with the participation of all sovereign states and taking into account the will of their peoples.
Illegal and dangerous is the assertion about the termination of all-union legal norms, which can only boost chaos and anarchy in society.
The speed with which the document appeared is baffling. It was not discussed either by the citizens or the Parliaments of the Republics on behalf of which it was signed.
Even more significantly, it happened at a time when the Republics' Parliaments are discussing the draft treaty of the Union of Sovereign States, drafted by the U.S.S.R. State Council.
I am deeply confident that in the present situation it is necessary for all Supreme Soviets of Republics and the Supreme Soviet of the U.S.S.R. to discuss the draft treaty of the Union of Sovereign States and the agreement signed in Minsk. As the agreement puts forward a formula of statehood, which is in the competence of the Congress of Soviet People's Deputies, it is necessary to convene the Congress. Besides, I do not rule out holding a nationwide referendum on this question.
PROTOCOL TO THE COMMONWEALTH AGREEMENT, ELEVEN REPUBLICS
December 21, 1991
The Azerbaijani Republic, the Republic of Armenia, the Republic of Belarus, the Republic of Kazakhstan, the republic of Kirgizstan, the Republic of Moldova, the Russian Federation, the Republic of Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, the Republic of Uzbekistan and Ukraine, on an equal basis, and as high contracting parties, are forming a Commonwealth of Independent States.
The agreement on the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States comes into force for each of the high contracting parties from the moment of its ratification. Documents regulating cooperation in the framework of the commonwealth will be worked out on the basis of the agreement on the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States, taking into consideration reservations made during its ratification.
This protocol is a constituent part of the agreement on the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States.
Done in Alma-Ata, on December 21, 1991, in one copy in the Azerbaijani, Armenian, Belarus, Kazakh, Kirghiz, Moldova, Russian, Tadzhik, Turkmen, Uzbeck and Ukrainian languages. All texts are equally valid. The authentic copy is kept in the archive of the government of the republic of Belarus, which will send the certified copy of this protocol to the high contracting parties.
ALMA-ALTA DECLARATION, ELEVEN REPUBLICS
December 21, 1991
THE INDEPENDENT STATES--the Azerbaijani Republic, the Republic of Armenia, the Republic of Belarus, the Republic of Kazakhstan, the Republic of Kirgizstan, the Republic of Moldova, the Russian Federation, the Republic of Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, the Republic of Uzbekistan and Ukraine,
SEEKING to build democratic law-governed states, the relations between which will develop on the basis of mutual recognition and respect for state sovereignty and sovereign equality, the inalienable right to self-determination, principles of equality and noninterference in internal affairs, the rejection of the use of force, the threat of force and economic and any other methods of pressure, a peaceful settlement of disputes, respect for human rights and freedoms, including the rights of national minorities, a conscientious fulfillment of commitments and other generally recognized principles and standards of international law;
RECOGNIZING AND RESPECTING each other's territorial integrity and the inviolability of the existing borders;
BELIEVING that the strengthening of the relations of friendship, good neighborliness and mutually advantageous cooperation, which has deep historic roots, meets the basic interests of nations and promotes the cause of peace and security;
BEING AWARE of their responsibility for the preservation of civil peace and interethnic accord;
BEING LOYAL to the objectives and principles of the agreement on the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States;
ARE MAKING the following statement:
Cooperation between members of the commonwealth will be carried out in accordance with the principle of equality through coordinating institutions formed on a parity basis and operating in the way established by the agreements between members of the commonwealth, which is neither a state nor a super-state structure.
In order to insure international strategic stability and security, allied command of the military-strategic forces and a single control over nuclear weapons will be preserved, the sides will respect each other's desire to attain the status of a non- nuclear or neutral state.
The Commonwealth of Independent States is open, with the agreement of all its participants, for other states to join--members of the former Soviet Union as well as other states sharing the goals and principles of the commonwealth.
The allegiance to cooperation in the formation and development of the common economic space, and all-European and Eurasian markets is being confirmed.
With the formation of the Commonwealth of Independent States, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics ceases to exist.
Member states of the commonwealth guarantee, in accordance with their constitutional procedures, the fulfillment of international obligations stemming from the treaties and agreements of the former U.S.S.R.
Member states of the commonwealth pledge to observe strictly the principles of the declaration.
DECLARATION ON THE MILITARY, ELEVEN REPUBLICS
December 21, 1991
Proceeding from the provision, sealed in the agreement on the establishment of a Commonwealth of Independent States and in the Alma-Ata declaration, for keeping the common military-strategic space under a joint command and for keeping a single control over nuclear weapons, the high contracting parties agreed on the following:
The command of the armed forces shall be entrusted to Marshal Yevgeny I. Shaposhnikov, pending a solution to the question of reforming the armed forces.
Proposals concerning this question shall be submitted by December 30, 1991, for the consideration of the heads of state.
DECLARATION ON INSTITUTIONS, ELEVEN REPUBLICS
December 21, 1991
A supreme body of the commonwealth--a "Council of the Heads of State"--as well as a "Council of the Heads of Government" shall be set up with a view to tackling matters connected with coordinating the activities of the states of the new commonwealth in the sphere of common interest.
The plenipotentiary representatives of the states of the new commonwealth shall be instructed to submit proposals concerning the abolition of the structures of the former Soviet Union, as well as the coordinating institutions of the commonwealth for the consideration of the Council of the Heads of State.
DECLARATION ON U.N. MEMBERSHIP, ELEVEN REPUBLICS
December 21, 1991
Member states of the commonwealth, referring to Article 12 of the agreement on the creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States,
PROCEEDING from the intention of each of the states to fulfill its duties stipulated by the U.N. Charter and to take part in the work of that organization as equal members;
TAKING into account that previously the Republic of Belarus, the U.S.S.R. and Ukraine were members of the United Nations organization;
EXPRESSING satisfaction that the Republic of Belarus and Ukraine continue to be U.N. members as sovereign independent states;
BEING full of resolve to promote the consolidation of world peace and security on the basis of the U.N. Charter in the interests of their nations and the whole of the world community;
HAVE DECIDED:
1. Member states of the commonwealth support Russia in taking over the U.S.S.R. membership in the U.N., including permanent membership in the Security Council and other international organizations.
2. The Republic of Belarus, the Russian Federation and Ukraine will help other member states of the commonwealth settle problems connected with their full membership in the U.N. and other international organizations.
Done in Alma-Ata on December 21, 1991, in one copy in the Azerbaijani, Armenian, Belarus, Kazakh, Kirghiz, Moldova, Russian, Tadzhik, Turkmen, Uzbeck and Ukrainian languages. All texts have equal force. The original copy will be kept in the archive of the Government of the Republic of Belarus, which will send the high contracting parties a certified copy of this protocol.
DECLARATION ON NUCLEAR ARMS, RUSSIA, BELARUS, UKRAINE, KAZAKHSTAN
December 21, 1991
Belarus, Kazakhstan, the Russian Federation and Ukraine, called henceforth member states,
CONFIRMING their adherence to the nonproliferation of nuclear armaments,
STRIVING for the elimination of all nuclear armaments, and
WISHING to act to strengthen international stability, have agreed on the following:
Article 1
The nuclear armaments that are part of the unified strategic armed forces insure the collective security of all members of the Commonwealth of Independent States.
Article 2
The member states of this agreement confirm the obligation not to be the first to use nuclear weapons.
Article 3
The member states of this agreement are jointly drawing up a policy on nuclear matters.
Article 4
Until nuclear weapons have been completely eliminated on the territory of the Republics of Belarus and Ukraine, decisions on the need to use them are taken, by agreement with the heads of the member states of the agreement, by the R.S.F.S.R. (Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic) President, on the basis of procedures drawn up jointly by the member states.
Article 5
1. The Republics of Belarus and Ukraine undertake to join the 1968 Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty and non-nuclear states and to conclude with the International Atomic Energy Agency the appropriate agreement guarantees.
2. The member states of this agreement undertake not to transfer to anyone nuclear weapons or other triggering devices and technologies, or control over such nuclear triggering devices, either directly or indirectly, as well as not in any way to help, encourage and prompt any state not possessing nuclear weapons to produce nuclear weapons or other nuclear triggering devices, and also control over such weapons or triggering devices.
3. The provisions of paragraph 2 of this article do not stand in the way of transferring nuclear weapons from Belarus, Kazakhstan and Ukraine to R.S.F.S.R. territory with a view to destroying them.
Article 6
The member states of this agreement, in accordance with the international treaty, will assist in the eliminating of nuclear weapons. By July 1, 1992 Belarus, Kazakhstan and Ukraine will insure the withdrawal of tactical nuclear weapons to central factory premises for dismantling under joint supervision.
Article 7
The Governments of Belarus, Kazakhstan, the Russian Federation and Ukraine undertake to submit a treaty on strategic offensive arms for ratification to the Supreme Soviets of their states.
Article 8
This agreement requires ratification. It will come into force on the 30th day after the handing over of all ratification papers to the Government of the R.S.F.S.R. for safekeeping.
Done in Alma Ata in one certified copy in Belarusian, Kazakh, Russian and Ukrainian languages, all texts being equally authentic.
PRESIDENT GORBACHEV'S TELEVISED STATEMENT
December 25, 1991
Dear fellow countrymen, compatriots. Due to the situation which has evolved as a result of the formation of the Commonwealth of Independent States, I hereby discontinue my activities at the post of President of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.
I am making this decision out of considerations based on principle. I have firmly stood for the independence, self-rule of nations, for the sovereignty of the republics, but at the same time for preservation of the union state and the integrity of this country.
Events took a different course. The policy prevailed of dismembering this country and disuniting the state, which is something I cannot subscribe to.
After the Alma-Ata meeting and its decisions, my position did not change as far as this issue is concerned. Besides, it is my conviction that decisions of such magnitude should have been made on the basis of the popular will.
However, I will do all I can to insure that the agreements signed there lead toward real concord in society and facilitate the exit out of this crisis and the process of reform.
This being my last opportunity to address you as President of the U.S.S.R., I consider it necessary to give you my evaluation of the road we have traveled since 1985, especially as there are a lot of contradictory, superficial and subjective judgments on that matter.
Destiny so ruled that when I found myself at the helm of this state it already was clear that all was not well in the country. We had a lot of everything--land, oil and gas, other natural resources--and there was intellect and talent in abundance. However, we were living much worse than people in the industrialized countries were living and we were increasingly lagging behind them.
The reason was obvious even then. The country was suffocating in the shackles of the bureaucratic command system. Doomed to cater to ideology, and suffer and carry the onerous burden of the arms race, it found itself at the breaking point. All the half--hearted reforms--and there have been a lot of them--fell through, one after another. This country was going nowhere and we couldn't go on living like that. We had to change everything radically.
That is why not once--not once--have I regretted that I did not take advantage of the post of General Secretary to rule as a czar for several years. I would have considered it an irresponsible and amoral decision. I realized that to start reforms of such scale in a society such as ours was a most difficult and even a risky thing. But even today I am convinced of the historic correctness of the democratic reforms that were started in the spring of 1985.
The process of renovating this country and bringing about drastic changes in the world community turned out to be much more complicated than anyone could imagine. However, what has been done ought to be given its due. This society has acquired freedom. It has been freed politically and spiritually, and this is the most important achievement--which we have not yet understood completely, because we have not learned to use freedom.
However, work of historic significance has been accomplished. The totalitarian system that deprived the country of an opportunity to become successful and prosperous long ago has been eliminated. A breakthrough has been achieved on the way to democratic changes. Free elections have become a reality. Freedom of the press, religious freedoms, representative legislatures and a multiparty system have all become reality. Human rights are recognized as the supreme principle.
The movement to a diverse economy has started, equality of all forms of property is being established, people who work on the land are coming to life again in the framework of land reform, farmers have appeared, millions of acres of land are being given over to people who live in the countryside and in towns. The economic freedom of the producer has been made a law, and free enterprise, the emergence of joint stock companies and privatization are gaining momentum.
As the economy is being steered toward the market format, it is important to remember that the intention behind this reform is the well-being of the individual. During this difficult time, everything should be done to provide for social security, especially for senior citizens and children.
We live in a new world. The Cold War has ended; the arms race has stopped, as has the insane militarization that mutilated our economy, public psyche and morals. The threat of a world war has been removed. Once again I want to stress that on my part everything was done during the transition period to preserve reliable control of nuclear weapons.
We opened ourselves to the world, gave up interference into other people's affairs, the use of troops beyond the borders of this country, and trust, solidarity and respect came in response. We have become one of the main foundations for the transformation of modern civilization on peaceful democratic grounds.
The nations and peoples of this country have acquired the right to freely choose their format for self-determination. The search for a democratic reformation of the multinational state brought us to the threshold of concluding a new union treaty. All these changes demanded intense strain. They were carried out with sharp struggle, with growing resistance from the old, the obsolete forces: the former party-state structure, the economic apparatus, as well as our habits, ideological superstitions, the psychology of sponging and leveling everyone out.
They stumbled on our intolerance, low level of political culture, fear of change. That is why we lost so much time. The old system collapsed before the new one had time to begin working, and the crisis in the society became even more acute.
I'm aware that there is popular resentment as a result of today's grave situation. I note that authority at all levels and myself are being subject to harsh criticisms. But once again I'd like to stress that radical changes in such a vast country, and a country with such a heritage could not have been carried out without difficulties, shock and pain.
The August coup brought the general crisis to its ultimate limit. The most damaging thing about this crisis is the breakup of the state. And today I am worried by our people's loss of the citizenship of a great country. The consequences may turn out to be very hard for everyone.
I think it is vitally important to preserve the democratic achievements of the last years. They have been paid for by the suffering of our whole history, our tragic experience. They must not be given up under any circumstances or any pretext, otherwise all our hopes for the better will be buried. I am saying all this straight and honestly. It is my moral duty.
Today, I'd like to express my gratitude to all citizens who supported the policy of renovating the country, got involved in the implementation of democratic reforms. I am grateful to statesmen, public and political figures, millions of people abroad, those who understood our concepts and supported them, and met us halfway. I thank them for their sincere cooperation with us.
I am leaving my post with apprehension, but also with hope, with faith in you, your wisdom and force of spirit. We are the heirs of a great civilization, and its rebirth into a new, modern and dignified life now depends on one and all.
I wish to thank with all my heart all those who have stood together with me all these years for a fair and good cause. Some mistakes could surely have been avoided; many things could have been done better. But I am convinced that sooner or later our common efforts will bear fruit, our nations will live in prosperous and democratic society.
I wish all the best to all of you.
STATEMENT BY PRESIDENT BUSH ON GORBACHEV RESIGNATION
December 25, 1991
Mikhail Gorbachev's resignation as President of the Soviet Union culminates a remarkable era in the history of his country and in its long and often difficult relationship with the United States. As he leaves office, I would like to express publicly and on behalf of the American people my gratitude to him for years of sustained commitment to world peace, and my personal respect for his intellect, vision, and courage.
President Gorbachev is responsible for one of the most important developments of this century, the revolutionary transformation of a totalitarian dictatorship and the liberation of his people from its smothering embrace. His personal commitment to democratic and economic reform through perestroika and glasnost, a commitment which demanded the highest degree of political and personal ingenuity and courage, permitted the peoples of Russia and other republics to cast aside decades of dark oppression and put in place the foundations of freedom.
Working with President Reagan, myself, and other allied leaders, President Gorbachev acted boldly and decisively to end the bitter divisions of the Cold War and contributed to the remaking of a Europe whole and free. His and Foreign Minister Eduard Shevardnadze's "New Thinking" in foreign affairs permitted the United States and the Soviet Union to move from confrontation to partnership in the search for peace across the globe. Together we negotiated historic reductions in chemical, nuclear, and conventional forces and reduced the risk of a nuclear conflict.
Working together, we helped the people of Eastern Europe win their liberty and the German people their goal of unity in peace and freedom. Our partnership led to unprecedented cooperation in repelling Iraqi aggression in Kuwait, in bringing peace to Nicaragua and Cambodia, and independence to Namibia. And our work continues as we seek a lasting and just peace between Israelis and Arabs in the Middle East and an end to the conflict in Afghanistan.
President Gorbachev's participation in these historic events is his legacy to his country and to the world. This record assures him an honored place in history and, most importantly for the future, establishes a solid basis from which the United States and the West can work in equally constructive ways with his successors.
Source: The Foreign Policy Bulletin, Vol. 2, No. 3 & 4; Jan.- April, 1992.